Introduction
Legal competence to establish MPAs within national jurisdiction and on the high seas
From a functional to a holistic approach
Pre-LOS Convention : principles in customary law
The traditional approach of the LOS Convention to protect and preserve the marine environment and to conserve living resources
Developments since 1982 : the obligations to protect and conserve marine biodiversity
Global obligations on conservation of marine biological diversity
Regional obligations and implementation of obligations on conservation of marine biodiversity
Conclusions
Legal obligations to establish MPAs : introductory remarks
The LOS Convention and establishment and management of MPAs
Is there a legal duty to establish MPAs under the CBD?
When is there a legal obligation under the CBD to establish MPAs?
The management of MPAs under the CBD convention
The OSPAR Convention and MPAs
MPAs under the Arctic Council
The relationship between the CBD and the LOS Convention : conflicting norms and mechanisms for solving them
Regulation of navigation in MPAs
Specially designated areas to protect the marine environment against impact of international shipping activities
Final remarks.